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As with numerous rule making decisions the persons affected the most are the least likely to be part of the process in designing the rule or analyzing the outcomes. There has been much said in the media and by politicians concerning the results of the long tarmac delay rule. Having been Captain of 2 out of 10 of the most delayed fights in the United States I thought I would give my perspective and try to dispel some myths. As you will find the solutions brought about by the new ruling are more nuanced than might be expected so let me try and explain.

Flights Are Cancelled As A Result Of The New Long Tarmac Delay Rule.

The long tarmac delay rule has had many benefits for both the traveler and the flight crew without a noticeable difference in the number of cancellations. The largest change in cancellations is where you are sitting when your flight is cancelled. Before the rule you would have been sitting on the taxiway when you got the message that your flight was cancelled. Now you are more likely to hear about the cancellation while sitting at home or in the terminal. The reason for the cancellation has not changed.

There are both positive and negative affects from this rule being implemented. To help you better understand the nuanced affect of the new rule let me relate to you some real life scenarios and the before and after affect of the new Tarmac Delay rule on these scenarios.

Scenario 1 - Four Hour Take Off Delay Due To Weather At the Departure Airport:

You are scheduled to fly from Newark Airport to Chicago O’Hare. Prior to boarding there is an announcement that departure delays out of Newark are up to four hours but the situation might change since the weather causing the delay is now moving away from the airport.

Pre Tarmac Delay Rule:

We probably would have pushed off the gate and waited on the taxiway for two reasons. First, if we can get in line and there is a break in the weather or the traffic flow out of the airport decreases, Air Traffic Control (ATC) may let us takeoff early. There are times when only a few planes are able to get out and then they shut down the departures again. If we are first in line we might be one of the planes able to take off and our decision to taxi to the runway early was a success.

One consideration during this process is there are only a few predefined departure routes away from Newark and if the weather along our departure route is bad then we will probably sit on the ground for awhile. If we look at the radar and see the weather along our departure path is clearing then we might want to start making our way to the runway. The risk we run is in other aircraft asking to be rerouted along the same departure path if they see the weather getting better.

The down side is that we might be number thirty in line and when they shut down the arrivals again we are still waiting on the tarmac, although now we are number twenty five for departure.

The second reason we would have pushed off the gate is the terminal is now filling up with passengers and the flight crew is under pressure to push the plane off the gate. This is an uncomfortable position to be in and prior to the long tarmac delay rule the Captain may have opted to get more gas and then taxi out because we know we are going to be waiting for a long time before takeoff and burning gas while we are waiting.

While we are waiting we are burning gas similar to a car’s engine idling. The one difference is that airliners have an auxiliary power unit (APU). The APU is a small turbine engine producing adequate electricity and air conditioning to allow us to shut down the engines. Normally we will taxi out to a position on the taxiway or tarmac and then shut down the engines using the APU for power and air conditioning therefore burning much less gas than the engines. On most of the jets I have flown, an airplane sitting with the engines shut down and the APU running will burn in 2 to 3 hours the same amount of gas as just one engine running for one hour or both engines running for thirty minutes. This is the reason why we normally shut our engines down if we know there will be a long delay.

Post Tarmac Delay Rule:

We normally will not leave the gate because the delay will be longer than the three hour limit imposed by the rule. This is good for business in the terminal because you will be spending more time waiting in the terminal instead of on an airplane. The only exception is if we feel that there is a compelling reason that we would be able to take off earlier. This is rare and the Captain would coordinate with both the airlines operations and ATC. This is now very rarely done because we don't want to risk our ability to get back to the gate within the three hour time limit and face large fines imposed by the new rule.

It might sound odd that we would have a problem getting back to the gate but if there are more planes on the airport taxiing than there are gates available we might me one of the unlucky ones unable to find a gate. This was more of a problem before the new rule which has for the most part been eliminated. Now we would not leave the gate if we think we will not be taking off in the next hour or two.

Scenario 2 - Delay at Destination While Taxiing To The Runway:

You board your flight from Memphis to Cincinnati and begin taxiing to the runway. The plane comes to a stop and the engines shut down and your thinking this is not good. The Captain makes an announcement that some weather has moved into the Cincinnati area and there is now a Ground Stop and there will be an update from ATC in two hours.

A Ground Stop to an airport is a delay issued by ATC to hold aircraft on the ground at their departure airports instead of letting them take off and hold in the air. This is both safer and more efficient since the plane on the ground will not be burning the extra fuel that we take along on every flight. This will also prevent the aircraft from diverting because if we hold long enough we will burn our reserve fuel and therefore not have enough to make it safely to our destination and divert. Therefore the Ground Stop is a good tool implemented by ATC.

There are times especially in the summer months when a storm will suddenly grow and then pass over the airport. They usually don’t last very long but arrivals to the airport must be stopped because landing while a thunderstorm is over the airport is not safe due to the high probability of wind shear. Wind shear is a sudden change in direction or speed of the wind which can be dangerous especially if the aircraft is close to the ground and there is not enough altitude to recover from the wind shear.

After waiting two hours we hear from ATC that the weather has moved away from the airport but we have an expected departure clearance time one hour from now. Since we have already been waiting two hours and one more hour would put us at the three hour limit we decide to go back to the gate and open the doors allowing passengers to deplane but we tell them that we are only going to be here for a few minutes since we have a departure time in one hour.

Another problem has arisen because if we are not off the ground in two hours from now we are going to “time out”. We use the term “time out” when referring to maximum duty times. The FAA mandates that pilots cannot be on duty more than 16 hours and we are now approaching that limit.

While sitting back at the gate ATC calls us and tells us that we can go if we can be ready in five minutes for takeoff. We tell ATC we need to get people back in their seats and then we will call them back. After fifteen minutes all passengers are on board and we are ready to go. We push back from the gate and begin to taxi when we get more bad news.

Another ground stop has been issued due to volume of planes flying into Cincinnati and we will get an update in two hours. This really isn’t our day. We tell ATC about our situation that we will time out in two hours and ask if they could try and put us at the front of the line if the ground stop is lifted. He reminds us that we could have taken off when he asked us before. We then remind the controller that we have new long tarmac delay rules which require us to go back to the gate. He says point taken.

After an hour of waiting we get some good and bad news. The ground stop is lifted but our departure time is in 90 minutes from now. We tell the controller we can only wait 60 minutes before we time out and if he can get us in earlier that would be great.

We reminded the controller 55 minutes later that we can only wait another 5 minutes. The controller comes back and says the best he can do is let us depart in 15 minutes. We tell him we will wait the 5 minutes and if any opening comes up please let us know so we can take off. The controller allows us to taxi to the end of the runway and wait just in case they can let us go early.

Five minutes goes by and the controller says that unfortunately he can’t let us take off early. We thank him for his help and ask to taxi back to the gate because we have reached our duty time limit. We get back to the gate and the flight is cancelled due to crew duty time.

Pre Tarmac Delay Rule:

We would have stayed out by the runway waiting for the chance to take off which in this scenario did happen. This would have prevented the flight from canceling.

Post Tarmac Delay Rule:

Most airlines will return to the gate well before spending three hours on the tarmac. This has lead to us missing an opportunity to depart due to changes in our wheels up time. In some cases early returns to the gate have caused cancellations.

The Good. The Bad. The Unpaid

The Long Tarmac Delay Rule has been successful in reducing the amount of time you will spend on the ground in an airplane. One negative affect of the new rule is that it has caused an increase in the number of flight cancellations. We as pilots know there is an increase but because of the difficulty in collecting data due to the nuances in the way delays are subject to real world conditions we may never see valid statistical data concerning cancellations. Especially since the total number of cancelled flights has not increased appreciably.

Data collection and reporting of such instances would be difficult but not impossible. For instance my second scenario would be reported to the Department of Transportation as a Cancellation due to the crew duty limits. It would be beneficial if we could see additional comments on the cancellations or more cancellation codes that reflect the real world situation. For example, in our scenario it would be better for our analysis if we could put comments on the “cancelation due to crew duty limits” with additional comments “crew determined if not complying with the long tarmac delay rules the flight would not have been cancelled”.

Pilots are now required to comply with the new Long Tarmac Delay rule which as I have show will in some cases cause a cancelled flight. Since pilots are mission oriented and want to complete the flight as originally planned it leads us to frustration and at times I hear from fellow airline pilots about the frustration because a flight was cancelled. But remember that not only is our mission to fly people safely we must also take into consideration the passengers’ comfort and resign ourselves to the fact that a flight cancellation is better for the passenger than sitting on the Tarmac for hours on end.

We only need to look towards the media, government, and the consumer protection organizations to realize the majority of passengers are happy with the Long Tarmac Delay Rule. So even though some flights are cancelled due to the new Long Tarmac Delay rule it would be rare to see any statistics showing a cancellation due to this rule because of the way the cancellation is recorded.

One more way the rule has affected flight crews is the loss of pay if the flight is cancelled. Flight crews are normally paid only when the door is closed and pushed back from the gate. Therefore, if we are delayed five hours and are parked at the gate we are not getting paid. Most airlines will pay the flight crew for their scheduled flight whether they fly the flight or not. There are some airlines that do not protect the flight crews pay if the flight cancels. For example if a flight crew member is scheduled to fly one hundred hours in a month and has a flight cancel which was five hours they will get paid for ninety five hours.

Conclusion:

The long tarmac delay rule has been a resounding success in limiting the number of hours passengers stay in the airplane on the taxiways. There also has not been an appreciable increase in overall flight cancellations. Many have interpreted this to mean there are no cancellations due to the new rule. As I have illustrated there are cancellations due to the rule. Until there is a methodology of measuring the nuanced decisions involved in making a decision to return to the gate we will not have a true statistical measurement of cancelations due to the long tarmac delay rule.

One of our readers sent us this scenario:

Departing Albert Whited Airport in St. Petersburg, Florida I receive the clearance “Cessna 1234X cleared for take off RW 18 turn eastbound after departure”.  During climb I hear tower call a Grumman and note in my mind a Grumman is up here somewhere.  The Grumman pilot responds. 

I take my turn to the east and about 10 seconds later I hear a call to a Grumman and start trimming and watching altitude.  I don’t hear the response from the Grumman and then I  hear the the tower call the Grumman again but I listen more attentively because I could tell the controller was trying to get the Grumman’s attention and he isn’t responding. While listening I hear the 1234X with the Grumman proceeding it.  I immediately call back with 1234X an politely remind the controller I am a Cessna not a Grumman.

The tower responds while laughing saying “well I got the last part right." He then gives me the clearance “Cessna 1234X contact Tampa Approach on 119.65."   The rest of the flight went as hoped but just learned lesson #3,520, controllers make mistakes and sometimes they laugh about them too. 

This scenario illustrates two important things to remember while you are flying. First, controllers are people and make mistakes just like us. So it is important to try and listen to all of the controllers transmissions and speak up if you hear an incorrect transmission or one you don't’ understand. This might save you or someone else’s life some day.

Secondly, If you are afraid of speaking on the radio you should take the time to talk to a controller face to face or take a tour of an air traffic control facility. I remember the first time I toured a tower and had my Wizard of Oz moment. When I got behind the curtain, control tower door in this case, I realized controllers are people just like me. Having this epiphany I began speaking to Air Traffic Control more as an equal than as if I was speaking to the all powerful OZ in the control tower.

As you gain experience listening to Air Traffic Control you will be able to process what they are saying quicker and will also be able to hear what is going on around you with more accuracy. A great tool for gaining experience and not spending money running the engine of your aircraft is by listening to Air Traffic Control with a hand held radio or listening on the internet at Live ATC.

For More Information:

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It was a typical rainy day in Newark and I was getting ready to board a flight to Tampa when I saw the crew for the flight and we started talking. One of the flight attendants is taking flying lessons and was describing her experience. The excitement in her description of her experience in learning to fly was invigorating.

After talking about learning to fly the captain mentioned he renews his CFI (Certified Flight Instructor) certificate every year but has not taught in decades. He then related how he was able to solo in only 8 hours which you never see these days. I told him the reason it takes longer to solo is there are additional requirements these days for solo including a presolo written.

The first officer looks at me and then the captain with a puzzled look and said it has always been that way and I flight instructed in the early nineties. The next sentence she caught herself as I could tell she was about to ask "how old are you?" but stopped mid sentence.

She then asked me what year the FAA change the rule because it was in effect when she received her license. I didn't know the answer but promised I would research the topic. It turns out a few months after I soloed in May of 1989 the FAA changed the rule.

The rule has been in effect since 1989 but it still amazes me when people still ask if they must take a presolo written because their instructor said they do not need to take " the written exam” before they solo. This is when I realized the confusion. I think instructors might be trying to tell their students they don't need to take the private pilot written exam before they solo, but I am hoping they stress that the presolo knowledge test is required. The private pilot written exam is the exam which must be completed before you can take your practical test and is administered by the FAA. The presolo knowledge is the exam your instructor or flight school gives you before you solo.

The Regulations

Part 61.87 states a student pilot must demonstrate satisfactory aeronautical knowledge on a knowledge test. The knowledge test must address the student pilot’s knowledge of:

Applicable sections of parts 61 and 91
Airspace rules and procedures for the airport where the solo flight will be performed
Flight characteristics and operational limitations for the make and model of aircraft to be flown.

The student's authorized instructor must administer the test and at the conclusion of the test, review all incorrect answers with the student before authorizing that student to conduct a solo flight

Tools for the Flight Instructor and Student

There are many commercially available course materials which include a presolo written exam in the curriculum so creating the knowledge exam has become easier. If you are a student wanting to prepare for the exam or if you are an instructor and don’t have a presolo written exam there are some available for free on the internet.

AOPA Air Safety Foundations Instructors Guide to the Presolo Written Exam is a great resource for instructors and for students preparing for the presolo written exam. Here is the link:

http://www.aopa.org/asf/publications/sa04.pdf

Conclusion

I have noticed there is some confusion as to the requirement of a presolo written exam, most of which I see posted online. If you are a student pilot you must complete a presolo written exam administered by your flight instructor prior to solo flight. The instructor must review all of your incorrect answers prior to your solo flight and endorse your logbook.

For those of you wanting to get back into flight instructing after decades away from the right seat, this is just one of the many rules that have changed. By the way, don’t feel bad when pilots look at you strange when you say you never had to take a presolo written exam. Think of it as a sign of experience instead of a sign of old age. Oh and by the way you don’t have to teach spins prior to solo anymore.

Safe Flying!

For More Information:

CFR Title 14 Part 16.87

Student Pilot Guide

FAA Advisory Circular 61-65E Which includes a sample solo knowledge exam logbook endorsement.

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One of our readers asks “What Is The Field Elevation printed on Airport Diagram and why is it important?”

The Field Elevation on the Airport Diagram references the Airport Elevation. The Federal Aviation Administration(FAA) defines the Airport Elevation as the highest point of an airport’s usable runways and is measured in height above mean sea level. Much of aviation symbology and regulations have changed to match the standards set forth by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Therefore on VFR charts you will also see the definition of airport elevation as the highest point on the usable portion of the landing areas.

Why the importance of airport elevation?

To provide for terrain clearance and compliance with speed restrictions you will need to know the field elevation. For example the maximum speed allowed within 4 nautical miles or five statute miles of the primary airport of class C airspace is two hundred knots up to two thousand five hundred feet above the primary airport elevation. So if you want to fly fast over the primary airport in Class C airspace you must know the airport elevation to avoid a speeding ticket, translated a violation. Another reason you must know the hight above the airport elevation is to comply with minimum visibility requirements. So as you can see knowing the airport elevation is important.

Examples:

View the excerpt of the airport diagram for Tampa International Airport depicted above. The box at the end of runway with the notation “Field Elevation 26” This depicts the highest point on the runway which also coincides with the Touch Down Zone Elevation (TDZE) runway 28. If you look at runway 10 there is a depiction ELEV 14 which is the Runway End or Touchdown Zone Elevation of runway 10. The Touchdown Zone Elevation is the highest elevation in the first 3,000 feet of the landing surface.

The field elevation is not always located at the end of the runway. Look at the airport diagram for Trenton airport depicted below. The field elevation is depicted at the intersection of taxiway A and runway 16. Since this is within 3,000 feet of the end of the runway, the touchdown zone elevation is the same as the field elevation which is 213.

Many of us enjoy flying out of grass strips and know that many have large dips and rises in the runway. If you look at an airport with a grass runway the airport elevation is the highest point of all these dips and rises in the runway. No offense to owners of level grass strips. I really appreciate you.

Conclusion:

Airport Elevation figure depicted on the airport diagram is the same as depicted on the sectional and instrument charts. The airport elevation is based on a specific point along the usable portion f the landing area. Most of us only view the field elevation and its impacts on us as pilots during and oral exam for a rating or a job. The practical use of this figure is for complying with speed and visibility restrictions at airports.

For more than a decade I have been helping people realize their aviation dreams and goals, one of which is to become an airline pilot. I have watched many achieve success by fulfilling the dream of piloting a sophisticated jet around the world. The one thing that amazes me is how many people don't understand the hiring cycles of the airlines and how to prepare for the next hiring boom.

The lack of understanding of the airline industry amongst both the general public and the pilot population became clear to me after September 11, 2001. After the tragic events that day and the subsequent downturn in the economy I decided to get involved in assisting furloughed pilots find jobs and advance their careers. I have seen many pilots soar to new heights in their careers and other careers crash and burn.

There are two important factors in becoming a successful airline pilot, airmanship and experience. Airmanship is the is ability to skillfully fly the aircraft. Experience comes from hours of flying in various environments. If you are going to become an airline pilot you should continually increase your flying skills and your experience.

Experience

When airlines hire they normally publish a minimum number of flight hours. If you don’t have the minimum hours most airlines won't even look at your qualifications no matter how good a pilot you are. Even if you feel you have enough experience to get hired you should continue to build your flight time. You also need to be building the type of flight time the airlines want which is multi-engine time.

There are many programs in this country which help pilots build multi-engine flight time in a very short period of time. I suggest your looking into one of these if you wish to put your piloting career into high gear. I have seen many pilots go from no flight time to the right seat of an airliner within six months simply by building all of their time in a twin.

The minimum flight time airlines require is based on the number of pilots available for hire. If there is a large supply of pilots the required hours both published and required increases. The airlines publish a number of hours which can normally be found on their website. This number is simply a minimum number which will allow you to apply. However, the number many times not published are the hours required to be competitive. .

Many pilots set their hourly goals too low. The first goal most pilots set is to meet the minimums and then apply to the airline of choice. After some pilots reach this hourly minimum, some make the mistake of slowing down and some even stop flying. This is not a good idea. You should never stop trying to build your flight time because similar to the wind the number of hours required to get a job will constantly change. I remember when I first began flying the joke was that in order to get on with a major airline you needed "perfect eyes, perfect tan, ten thousand hours, and two moon landing". With some airlines this wasn't far from the truth, but what many didn't expect is that only a decade later major airlines would hire pilots with as little as five hundred hours. Again the supply of experienced pilots diminished to the point the airlines could not find experienced pilots willing to apply. This will happen again.

The Hiring Cycle

Advancement at an airline is based solely on seniority which is why the sooner you are hired the faster you move up the seniority list. It is a difficult concept to understand for those not in the industry. Just remember there are no lateral moves in the airline industry so you need to expedite your hire date. For example, if Sully Sullenberger was hired at Delta Airlines today he would be the most junior pilot at Delta.

The reason airlines need more pilots is twofold. First, the airline is expanding and is flying more. There is a finite number of hours a pilot can legally fly, therefore they must hire more pilots to cover their schedules.

The second reason airlines hire is that they are losing pilots. Because of the seniority system at the airlines most pilots don't ever leave until they retire or lose their medical.
Airline Pilots are mandated to retire at age sixty-five and a small number retire early. A simple method to determine how senior you will become at an airline is to look at the number of pilots at the airline younger than you and that will be your estimate maximum seniority not factoring in early retirements and medical retirements.

Similar to all businesses, airline hiring is cyclic. Most furlough during bad economic times and hire during good times. Since the airlines hire in cycles you will see groups of pilots hired within a very short period of time. You also will see many pilots retiring at the same time. This is why you should look at the age of the pilots on the seniority list to determine in what years there will be a great number or retirements.

Regardless of retirements you should always be prepared for the next hiring cycle by gaining as much experience and increasing your airmanship. I wish I had a dollar for every pilot who quit flying and then started flying again when things started picking up. Many missed two separate hiring cycles and are still trying to break into the industry.

Airmanship

You should always strive to be the best pilot you can be with a goal of being both a competent and safe pilot. Airmanship is the ability to both control the aircraft and make sound decisions while operating in the aeronautical environment. Different flight operations require various skill sets but all can be categorized as Airmanship. Someone flying in the wild arctic tundra of Alaska must have good stick and rudder skills while someone who flies in low visibility and constantly in the clouds must have good instrument skills.

Airline pilots must operate in all weather conditions and must be able to land an airplane in very high and gusty winds. An airline pilot must also fly in very low visibility and with precise control of the aircraft with reference to the instruments. If you are planning on becoming an airline pilot you should be a well rounded pilot and able to fly in both strong crosswinds and low visibility.

During the hiring process the airline assumes you can fly to commercial pilot standards. The airline will train you to competently fly the aircraft they are training you on but you must come with the basic skills to fly an airplane especially with regard to instrument flying. Therefore if you are building hours but have not flown an instrument approach in months you need to get your skills up to par.

If you are making your living flying banners you need to get into a good simulator or get some instrument time before going to an interview or to training. One of the deficiencies I have seen many pilots terminated for in the past is their inability to control the airplane with reference to the flight instruments.

Normally the lack of basic instrument skills is made evident during the training process and your chances are high of dropping out if you can't get your instrument scan back up to standard. During times of intense hiring the airlines occasionally make exceptions. It is my experience that pilots who lack basic instrument skills will be trained by the airlines only during times of large pilot shortages. With that said I would not bet my career on the fact the airline you get hired with will be kind enough to train you to fly by reference to instruments. You should arrive instrument current and competent.

Furthermore, If you have been furloughed with an airline and have been recalled it would be best for you to get some instrument time either in the plane or by using one of the many outstanding simulators. You will increase your confidence, skill, and knowledge of instrument procedures.

In my experience every time I have seen pilots recalled from furlough, a few obstinate pilots feel the airline should train them to be a proficient pilot when they are recalled to work. Nothing can be further from the truth. Luckily most airlines will allow you to reapply after being terminated due to lack of flying skills. I suggest you don't get yourself into this situation.

You should always keep flying but if you find there is an area you need to work on you should do it before showing up for an interview or for training. I suggest your getting your instrument instructor certificate and teach. One of the best ways to master something is to teach.

Exceptions To The Rule

There are exceptions to all rules and getting hired with an airline has many. You will notice that during times when there is an overabundance of pilots some will get hired with as few as five hundred hours. Almost as important as what you know is who you know. Being involved with internships are a great way to get yourself in the door at the chief pilots office and increase your chances of getting hired.

Conclusion

There is always a coming pilot shortage due to the cyclic nature of the airline business and retirements. To prepare for the upcoming shortages you should gain as much time and experience right now. There is never a substitute for airmanship but equally important is increasing your flight time. Both of these will make many jobs available to you when the hiring door opens. You want to be the first in the door when the hiring cycle begins because it will some day shut again. Remember with the airlines everything is dependent upon your seniority and the faster you get in the door the better.

Keep Flying!

Wouldn’t it be great to observe an instrument flight and listen to pilot and controller interactions on a daily basis? You would become better at communicating and understanding the nuances of operating from various types of airports.

One way to get this experience is to watch Sporty’s IFR Communications video which brings you into the cockpit during a variety of instrument flights. Not only will you get to ride along and listen to the communications between the controller and the pilot you will also hear commentary by the experts at Sporty’s explaining the meaning of the last communication.

Video Thanks To ThePilotReport.com

My favorite aspect of this video and the reason I recommend it to my students is that it gives examples of operating in and out of many different types of airports. If you primarily operate out of tower controlled airports and you are apprehensive about your next trip departing a non towered field you should watch this video.

The instructors at Sporty’s clearly explain methods of obtaining your IFR clearance at non towered airports. You then will get in the cockpit and follow along as the pilot obtains his clearance and then flies to his destination. During the process the instructor interjects explanations and standard procedures including organizing your cockpit and the recommended sequences of preparing for the flight.

This video includes three separate flights with various avionics panels. One flight is in a Cessna Skyhawk with a VOR and no GPS. For those who only use the VOR for backup this is a great opportunity to review position determination by cross radial. Furthermore, it will show you how to communicate with controllers who are accustomed to people flying with avionics allowing direct to navigation. When was the last time you needed vectors to join and airway or an intersection?

A second flight is in a G1000 equipped Skylane. The first part includes a review of the glass panel and pertinent features. I particularly enjoyed this because I am becoming acquainted with the G1000 and learned some good operating tips from this video.

The third flight is in a classic Piper Aztec into the busy New York Airspace using GPS and a multi function display, MFD. You will navigate busy airspace and see real life examples of multiple reroutes in flight with a landing at LaGuardia airport. If you ever wondered how to make a reservation at a busy metropolitan airport, this is the perfect primer.

The Video Includes:

• IFR Communications Review
• Emergency Lost Communications Review
• Obtaining your clearance at non towered airports
• How and when to cancel your IFR flight plan
• When it is a good idea to pick up your IFR clearance in the air and when you would not want to.
• Learn when you should cancel in the air before you land and when it can lead you into a trap.
• How to work with Air Traffic Control to get the outcomes you want.

Conclusion:

I recommend Sporty’s IFR communications for all experience levels of instrument pilot. The DVD includes examples of operating in a wide range of flight environments. For those who rarely operate in one of these environments, such as the busy New York Airspace, this would be good review prior to planning your flight. The instructors are very good and the use of graphics and inflight video make this a pleasure to watch.

An added benefit to viewing this video is that you can earn FAA Wings credit online by taking an exam afterwards. Thus placing you one step closer to earning your wings and your flight review. I used this video for credit towards the Wings program after taking the online exam associated with the video.

At $31.95 this DVD is a bargain especially if you compare it to the cost of flight and ground instruction. I would highly recommend Sporty’s IFR Communications for all my instruments students and instrument rated clients.

For More Information:

Wings Credit

Sporty’s IFR Communications DVD

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On Monday April 18th a Boeing 737 carrying the First Lady was required to discontinue their approach to Andrews Air Force Base because they came too close to a C-17. For those of us who fly often we know air traffic control may accidentally bring us too close to a larger plane in front of us and we must execute a go around, but when the First Lady is on board it makes the news. All the media attention to this event gives us a perfect opportunity to review the concept of wake turbulence and the regulations and procedures we should use to avoid an encounter with the wake of a large aircraft.

What is Wake Turbulence?

During flight the air pressure above the wing is less than the air pressure below the wing. Since air flows from low to higher pressure the air below the wing will try to flow upwards along the path of least resistance. Since the fuselage blocks the flow, the path of least resistance is towards the wingtips. The air on top of the wing tends to flow slightly towards the fuselage where a vortex is also generated but because of the fuselage disrupting the flow this vortex is insignificant.

Now we have air curling up over the wing tips and flow from the top of the wing downward called down wash. The two combine at the wingtip and create a fast spinning vortex similar to horizontal tornadoes trailing the aircraft. You can see these vortices in person if you sit at the end of a runway and watch a very large aircraft land. Many times you will see the vortex bend towards the ground setting up mini tornadoes sucking up dirt and debris as the vortex travels along the ground.

The vortex or wake from an aircraft is only produced when the airplane is creating lift and increases as the wings angle of attack is higher. As a review the angle of attack is the angle between the wing cord line and the relative wind which is opposite the flight path. The greater the angle of attack the greater the pressure differential between the bottom and top of the wing. The largest wake an aircraft will produce is when an aircraft's angle of attack is highest which is when the aircraft is heavy, clean, or slow.

Vortex Behavior

The trailing vortex of an aircraft is not usually visible making them hard to avoid if you don’t know the behavior of an aircraft’s wake after the plane passes through a section or air. To help you avoid the wake of a large aircraft there are some tools we can use based on the action of the wake.

The wake of an aircraft begins from the moment the wing produces lift. Therefore from the moment the plane begins to rotate until the plane lands and the weight of the aircraft is transferred to the wheels there is a vortex being produced.

The vortex of the aircraft trails behind the aircraft and is slightly less than the wingspan of the aircraft. The vortex will normally move downward at rates of two hundred to three hundred feet per minute. Away from the surface the vortex will be influenced and travel with the wind normally stopping between five hundred to one thousand feet below the aircraft.

Within one hundred to two hundred feet above the ground the vortex will move down and outward traveling sideways or laterally along the ground at approximately two to three knots. The vortices near the ground are also subject to influence from the wind. The most dangerous situation is a tailwind from the left or right side of the runway because the vortex tends to stay over the runway.

Wake Turbulence Avoidance

The best way to avoid the wake of a preceding aircraft is to stay well behind and above the wake. To do this we must visualize where the wake is and where we should position our aircraft to avoid the wake.

Landing

When landing behind an aircraft on the same runway stay at or above the approach path of the preceding aircraft touching down beyond the preceding aircraft’s touchdown point.

When landing behind a heavy aircraft on a parallel runway closer than two thousand five hundred feet anticipate the vortex drifting onto the runway you are using. Again try to land beyond the touchdown point of the aircraft on the parallel runway.

When landing behind a heavier aircraft landing on a crossing runway stay above and land beyond the path of the heavy aircraft.

When landing behind a heavy aircraft departing on an intersecting runway rotate before the preceding aircraft’s rotation point. If the heavier aircraft rotates prior to the intersection of the runway you are landing on then go around.

Departing

When departing behind a heavier aircraft on the same runway rotate prior to the heavy aircrafts rotation point and climb above the heavy airplane’s flight path. This might require a turn after takeoff.

If departing after a heavier aircraft did a low approach, touch and go, or a go around wait at least two minutes before departing. The vortices will descend below the flight path and will also move laterally if the plane was within two hundred feet of the ground. The vortices may stay over the runway especially in a light quartering tailwind. The best action would be to wait two minutes before departure.

Even if you fly out of an airport with small planes the airport close to you might handle large jet traffic. This is the case in the airport I fly out of which is on the same approach and departure path as an Air Force Base. I have a friend who was approaching our small airport when he was rolled by a large military transport aircraft flying across his path. Luckily he was a aerobatic pilot and took this in stride and just rolled with the vortex and recovered.

Enroute

While enroute avoid being below and behind a larger aircraft. The best avoidance if you find your self below a larger aircraft’s wake is to move laterally, preferably upwind from the aircraft’s path.

Air Traffic Control Procedures and Wake Turbulence.

While landing or taking off visually behind a heavy aircraft or a Boeing 757 you will be issued the cautionary advisory “caution wake turbulence” followed by the position, altitude and direction of flight.

If you are directly behind and aircraft in a radar environment Air Traffic Control will give you certain minimum separation standards. Any aircraft within two thousand five hundred feet of the flight path of another aircraft is considered behind another aircraft. Using this standard, aircraft operating on runways less than two thousand five hundred feet apart will be treated as if landing on the same runway and be considered behind the preceding aircraft.

Separation standards while under radar control vary based on the size of the aircraft you are following and the size of your aircraft. Aircraft are classified into three categories based on weight. A heavy aircraft is one that weighs 300,000 pounds or more. A large aircraft is one that weights more than 41,000 pounds but less then three hundred thousand. A small aircraft is any aircraft forty one thousand pounds or less.

The FAA has interim procedures for aircraft following the Airbus 380. Aircraft flying behind an A380 will be separated by 6 miles for a heavy aircraft, 8 miles for a large aircraft , and 10 miles for a small aircraft.

If the following aircraft comes within this distance the air traffic controller will separate them by changing the direction of the following aircraft or in the case of a landing aircraft make the plane go around. An example of this occurring is when the plane carrying the First Lady was issued a clearance by air traffic control to discontinue the approach because they came within the separation standards of the preceding heavy C17.

Wake Turbulence Avoidance Is Everyone's Responsibility

Air traffic control does a great job of keeping us safe while we are flying in the clouds but they are human and make mistakes. That is why it is important to try to listen to not only the clearances given to you by ATC but also to listen to other aircraft on the radio. This will increase your awareness of the situation tremendously.

If you see the aircraft in front of you and tell ATC that you have the preceding aircraft in sight they will issue you a caution “wake turbulence” but you are on your own in providing separation from the preceding aircraft's wake. If you do get too close to the proceeding aircraft, Air Traffic Control should issue you a caution and the distance from the proceeding heavier aircraft. If they tell you to abandon the approach and go around you should immediately begin your missed approach or go around.

It is important to realize that although it is everyone's’ responsibility to avoid wake turbulence the pilot is responsible for and is the final authority to the operation of the aircraft. Positioning yourself away from the wake of the aircraft in front of your aircraft may at times be the responsibility of ATC but ultimately the pilot in command must decide if you are at a safe distance and altitude.

Safe Flying!

For More Information:

NTSB releases new details on Obama flight incident

It was a great day to practice some touch and goes since the winds were blowing and my friend, we will call him Jim, needed some crosswind practice. Jim and I fly out of Peter O. Knight Airport in Tampa Florida which is only a few miles from MacDill Air Force Base, home to some important military commands. We often see the military transport aircraft flying overhead, and occasionally with some very important people. These VIPs, especially the Joint Chiefs Of Staff will cause a Temporary Flight Restriction, TFR and today was one of those days where we had a TFR right over the airport.

Jim left work early to do some local flying from Peter O. Knight. Taxing to the runway Jim saw one plane depart and another plane call with their intentions of departing. After listening to the weather Jim switched back to the CTAF and announced his intentions of crossing a runway on his way out to depart.

This is when he heard someone calling his N number on the CTAF. He answered and it turned out to be the local FBO trying to contact him. The FBO asked if he knew about the TFR because of the Vice President’s visit? Jim said no, but then thanked him and taxied back to the hangar.

After putting the plane away, Jim drove to the terminal building to thank the manager for warning him about the TFR. Unfortunately, two planes had just taken off and the US Secret Service were looking for those two planes because they needed to talk to them. One of them always flies IFR but departs VFR and picks up his clearance in the air, but today this was not a good idea. Looks like two pilots had a very bad day.

I hope you never violate a TFR because it usually comes with a minimum ninety day suspension of your pilot certificate. Let me give you some tools that will help you in avoiding violating an TFR.

What is a TFR?

A Temporary Flight Restriction is a Flight Data Center (FDC) Notice To Airmen (NOTAM) which is issued for a variety of reasons including:

The majority of TFR’s require a pilot to be on an Instrument flight plan, therefore shutting down most VFR operations. This is one reason many look towards getting their instrument rating, especially if they operate in an area with many TFR’s. Although as you will see having an instrument rating does not always keep you out of trouble.

How To Avoid Violating A TFR

Since the terrorist attacks on the United States TFR’s are common and they can be implemented at the last minute. Some of you have decided to stop flying recreationally since it might jeopardize your professional pilot job. Some have decided to not fly at all recreationally when a TFR is implemented because most TFRs require you to be on an IFR clearance and you don’t want to get your instrument rating or you are not instrument current.

Over the past decade there have been numerous violations involving VFR aircraft flying into TFRs so I understand pilots reticence in taking off when one is near. Rest assured there is a solution to the high number of TFR violations. First, know the TFR exists and second know the boundaries of the TFR.

How To Find TFR Information

TFR’s can easily be found but take some action on your part. In rare instances a TFR may suddenly appear and become affective while you are in flight. Some have invested in GPS displays which depict the current TFR’s and will normally catch these TFR’s that may occasionally pop up. But the most important thing to do is to become acquainted with all available information including TFR’s

Before I fly I look up the TFR’s on the FAA’s website at www.tfr.faa.gov . This is a great start to your preflight because this website has listed most TFR’s, although a disclaimer exists at the bottom of the website warning that this website is only for planning purposes. You should always contact a briefer prior to your taking off on a VFR flight to determine if any TFR’s exist. To obtain the TFR’s along your route of flight check the FDC NOTAMS. Right before you leave it is always a good idea to receive an updated briefing to check if any TFR’s have suddenly popped up, especially if you operate near an area prone to VIP visits such as MacDill Air Force Base.

Filing IFR doesn’t always keep us clear of TFR’s.

Many flying Visually tend to stay on the ground when TFR restrictions are in place because we don’t want the added work of talking to air traffic control and getting a clearance. Those that fly for business will many times file and fly under Instrument Flight Rules, which most of us feel will keep us clear of all TFRs. But things don’t always go as planned and there are a few instances where you can still get into trouble.

The majority of my professional flying is out of cities where I obtain my clearance for ground control or clearance delivery. For my personal flying I choose non towered airports primarily because after talking to ATC all week I like the freedom and peace and quite of a silent radio when departing a sleepy little airport. When I do fly cross country I almost always file IFR to keep me away from TFR’s and for the added safety of always being in contact with ATC.

The two airports I do my pleasure flying from both have a remote communications outlet where I can pick up a clearance before departing. Most of the time when I call clearance and it is VFR they will ask If I can depart VFR and pick up the clearance in the air. So that is what I usually do. I take off and ask for my IFR clearance airborne.

In the case above this would not have kept me clear of the TFR since the flight restriction included the airspace above the airport. In this case filing IFR would not have kept me clear of a TFR violation since I would have taken off into the airspace unknowingly had I not checked the NOTAMs.

Many times while enroute on an IFR flight plan we become tempted to cancel in the air since the airport may be in sight many miles away and we don’t want additional vectoring from Air Traffic Control. Canceling in the air is many times more convenient than calling ATC or Flight Service on the ground. The only caveat is you must make sure you are not going to violate any TFR’s especially if you are very far away from the airport. To keep myself out of trouble I normally don’t cancel until I am on final or on the downwind and know I am well clear of any potential TFR’s

Conclusion:

Avoiding TFR’s is more difficult since the terrorist attacks on the United States. The best avoidance is to use all tools available and to talk to a briefer just prior to your departure. One of the best ways to avoid a TFR violation is to file and fly under instrument flight rules if you have the rating. Some pilots I speak with get their instrument rating for the primary purpose of being able to fly through TFR’s.

There are many tools at your disposal in trying to avoid a call from the Secret Service for violating a TFR. Using the FAA website, filing IFR, and calling flight service before you depart are all ways to dramatically reduce the risk of violating a TFR. Always be vigilant and remember a short call to flight service to get information on TFR’s takes much less time than an enforcement hearing with the FAA.

Safe Flying!

For More Information:

FAA TFR Website http://www.tfr.faa.gov

Sponsor:

Thanks to David Sorg for his question concerning how to avoid violating TFR's.

A reader asks "I know the airplane must have a magnetic compass but I heard the compass error cannot be more than ten degrees”. My friend flies a plane with more than a ten degree error. Is this legal? Also how is the compass tested and how often is it checked?

Requirements

The compass is an instrument which often is ignored in modern technically advanced aircraft, but it is one of the most important instruments in our airplane. A magnetic direction indicator is required in all aircraft with a standard airworthiness certificate, see Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations Part 91.205 Besides being required by law, how else would we be able to determine our direction if all of that advanced equipment fails in flight.

Deviation

All magnets are prone to errors due to magnetic flux generated when the electrical equipment in the airplane is turned on. This error is called deviation error. Many of us fly airplanes with a vertical compass card which is less prone to oscillations in flight but is still prone to the same magnetic errors.

Compass Correction Card and Swinging The Compass

To compensate for the magnetic errors produced by the electrical equipment in the aircraft a compass correction card is installed in the aircraft. The compass correction card shows every 30 degrees of heading and a box underneath with a value filled in by the mechanic when they "swung the compass".

Most airports have a compass rose with cardinal headings painted on the surface. The Aviation Maintenance Technician, AMT, will carefully taxi the airplane onto the compass rose and align the airplane with each of the cardinal headings. The AMT will note the heading on the magnetic compass indication and if there is an error try to adjust the compensating magnets to remove any errors

More than ten degrees of error

Any errors the AMT cannot remove must be noted on the compass correction card which is placed on or near the magnetic compass. It is a common misunderstanding that a compass cannot have more than ten degrees of error because the regulations in part 23.1327 state the "compensated instillation must not have more than ten degrees of error in level flight".

If you continue to read the regulation the last sentence allows for "deviations of a magnetic non stabilized direction indicator of more than 10 degrees" but the deviations must be placarded and in compliance with part 23.1547(e). The regulation says the placard must state which electrical loads, or combination of loads, would cause a deviation of more than 10 degrees when turned on.

When Must We Swing The Compass?

Advisory Circular AC 43.13-1B contains practices and repair methods. The Advisory Circular states the AMT must swing the compass for the following reasons:

(1) When the accuracy of the compass is suspected.

(2) After any cockpit modification or major replacement involving ferrous metal.

(3) Whenever a compass has been subjected to a shock; for example, after a hard landing or turbulence.

(4) After aircraft has passed through a severe electrical storm.

(5) After lighting strike.

(6) Whenever a change is made to the electrical system.

(7) Whenever a change of cargo is likely to affect the compass.

(8) When an aircraft operation is changed to a different geographic location with a major change in magnetic deviation. (e.g., from Miami, Florida to Fairbanks, Alaska.)

(9) After aircraft has been parked on one heading for over a year.

(10) When flux valves are replaced.

The only problem I have with this advisory circular is their example of a compass being subjected to a "shock". Their example of a "hard landing" is subjective. Just make sure an airworthiness inspector is not within ear shot when you comment "boy that was a hard landing". You might be required to swing the compass afterwards. Seriously though if it has been a bouncy day, either weather or pilot induced, and you notice your compass is not reading accurately you should talk to a mechanic because it might be time to swing the compass.

Conclusion

The magnetic compass is often overlooked because the electronics in our new technically advanced aircraft will give us a more accurate heading indication without much thought process. A magnetic compass, especially the old “whiskey” compass requires some knowledge and training in proper usage. When was the last time you did compass turns? Maybe it is time to practice and become proficient using the magnetic compass again.

During your review of the compass you might find on one heading there is more than a ten degree heading error which might be cause for alarm. You may remember hearing from your instructor “There can be no more than a ten degree error so you can’t fly.” As you now understand this is not the case as long as the error over ten degrees has been noted and placarded.

The placard must indicate the specific electronic equipment operating when the error was noted. Normally the placard will include two lines, one with the compass error with all the radio equipment on and one without the radios on. This will assist you in steering when you have a complete electrical failure and have turned all of your radios off.

Multiple electronic heading indicating systems result in our rarely using the magnetic compass except for aligning the heading indicator during preflight and readjustment during cross country flights. If you have an electronic heading and attitude referencing system you may only check your heading displayed on the electronic display before flight and ignore the compass the remainder of the flight.

Although rare, all of your electronic systems can fail and the only remaining heading instrument is your magnetic compass. It happened to my coworker recently. To stay proficient take notice of the movement of the magnetic compass during turns and accelerated flight. Try to anticipate what the compass will do while you maneuver the aircraft. If you have any questions regarding the use of the compass find a flight instructor and have them show you its proper use. This will make you a safer and more proficient pilot especially when your electronic or gyroscopically stabilized heading indicator fails.

Safe Flying!