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Did you know bird strikes cause over $650 million dollars of damage to aircraft in the United States?

Do you know what is the biggest killer of migratory birds?

Have you ever had a bird strike your aircraft and wonder if there was anything you could have done to prevent the unwelcome encounter?

Ever wonder what you can do to prevent damage to your aircraft if a bird strike is immanent?

For answers to these and other questions I invite you to view the FAA Safety Seminar in person or online.

During the seminar you will:

Learn the common myths concerning bird strikes.
Learn what to do if you are about to be involved in a bird strike.
Discover some unique, humane, and environmentally friendly methods of bird mitigation.

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Level at fifteen thousand feet Air Traffic Control (ATC) issued a clearance to descend via the PHLBO TWO arrival into Newark, NJ (EWR). We were 30 miles southwest of DQO which has a crossing restriction at or above twenty thousand feet. We are already at fifteen thousand, which is below the crossing restriction of twenty thousand, so when can we begin our descent?
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The regulations state that flight into known or forecast light or moderate icing is prohibited unless we have an anti-ice or deice system. What does the FAA consider the word "known" to mean in reference to icing conditions?

The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) defines known icing conditions as "atmospheric conditions which the formation of ice is observed or detected in flight". If there is a pilot report of icing in an area you are flying through, you are flying into an area of known icing. If you don't have anti-ice or deice equipment you should not fly into this area.

It is easy to determine "known" but how do we determine what is forecast icing?

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Pilots are hesitant to declare an emergency and even more hesitant to tell Air Traffic Control (ATC) if they have a possible problem. The reasons are many fold but the justification I hear often is they don’t want to deal with the paperwork. This is not a good excuse, especially when not advising ATC of your fuel situation could lead to a fuel emergency.

If you have any problem or are experiencing a condition that would jeopardize the safety of the flight you should immediately let ATC know so they can begin assisting you. If your engine quits you would let ATC know right away, so why not do the same when your fuel begins getting low.

A minimum fuel situation allows the pilot to continue for a long time before the engine quits and is one of the reasons some pilots tend not to take immediate action by notifying ATC or proceeding to an alternate airport. The wonderful aspect when declaring minimum fuel is that it is an advisory to ATC and requires no paper work.

What is Minimum Fuel?

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LaGuardia Airport in New York City is one of the more challenging airports due to limited airport surface for taxiing and many obstacles in the departure path. I recently had a conversation with a First Officer at a regional airline who said LaGuardia is rewarding to fly into but you must be vigilant.

During our conversation he related that some Captains he flies with are not aware of the climb gradients or how to calculate the rate of climb. In defense of Captains, maybe because I am one, charts are normally provided describing the maximum weights for the runway and weather conditions. But since he brought it up let’s review departure procedures and climb gradients.

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Pilots of all experience levels seem to have some misconceptions concerning class C airspace. This was made apparent during two recent flights. One while planning a flight with a student through the class C airspace over Sanford, Florida. The second with an airline captain who had forgotten the speed restrictions within class C airspace causing us to slow much earlier than was necessary.

Let's review class C airspace and some of the nuances while operating within class C. You might be surprised by some of the symbols and operating rules even if you normally fly within class C airspace.

Class C Airspace Chart Symbols :

The following depicts the top of the inner circle from 4000 feet MSL(mean sea level) to the surface :

The Following depicts the outer circle from 4000 MSL to 1200 MSL :

The following depicts the class C airspace up to but not including the overlying class B airspace :

The magenta thick line box depicts the radio frequencies to use and who to contact :

Boundaries:

Inner circle from the surface with a 5 nautical mile ring up to 4000 above the primary airport.

Outer circle from 5 to 10 nautical miles from the primary airport and from 1200 AGL to 4000 AGL of the primary airport.

Outer area from 10 to 20 nautical miles from the primary airport but not depicted on the chart because communication with air traffic control is not mandatory but highly recommended.

Equipment Required:

Transponder with with altitude capability while within the lateral boundaries of Class C airspace

Two way radio.

Operating Rules:

Establish two-way radio contact.

You must establish two way radio communications prior to entering class C airspace. To establish two-way radio communications with air traffic control you should first give your position, altitude, and your request. Your request should include whether you are landing or transitioning their airspace.

If the controller has answered you with your call sign or registration number you have established two way radio contact. Now you are cleared to enter the class C airspace unless otherwise instructed.

Example: Two-way radio communications not established.

You call "Daytona approach Cessna 123NU twenty miles southwest, two thousand, landing Daytona Beach information Juliet. The controller responds "aircraft calling southwest standby." You have not established two-way radio contact and may not enter controlled airspace.

Example: Two-way radio communications establish.

If in the previous example the controller responded with "Cessna 123NU squawk 4525" you have established communications and are clear to enter their airspace. If the controllers response was "Cessna 123NU Roger" you may also enter the class C airspace.

Example: Communications established but not cleared into class C airspace.

If in the above example the controller response "123NU" squawk 4525, remain clear of class C airspace" you may not enter the airspace until you receive further clearance. Remember if the controller responds with your call sign or registration number you are cleared into class C airspace unless instructed otherwise.

Airspeed :

Airspeed maximum of 200 knots indicated within 4 nautical or 5 statute miles and 2500 feet above the ground of the primary airport.

Pilot Certification Required :

No Specific Pilot Certification is required but you will need to an additional endorsement if operating in Class C airspace with a sport pilot certificate.

Operating within class C Airspace:

Entering class C airspace begins in the same manner as every flight by becoming familiar with all available information. Before we enter Class C we should review the frequencies, airspace dimensions, weather, and our aircraft to determine if we are legal to enter the airspace.

Example: Entering Class C Airspace

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Lets fly a short flight from Deland to Daytona Beach, Florida. During our preflight we determine our aircraft has an operating transponder and a two-way radio.

While reviewing the airspace on our chart, the outer circle indicates class C airspace from 4000 MSL(Mean sea Level) to 1200 feet MSL. Since this will be a short flight we will remain at 1000 feet and stay under the outer circle. Prior to entering class C we must establish two-way radio communication, but what frequency do we use?

While reviewing the airspace on the sectional chart we see the magenta box located south of the airspace with a frequency of 125.35. Confirming the proper frequency, review the Communications section for Daytona Beach in the Airport Facility .

Since Deland is close to Orlando we should also review the terminal area chart for Orlando. There are three boxes with frequencies in them and at first glance it might seem confusing. But upon closer inspection we notice one of the magenta boxes has an arrow pointing toward the Daytona Beach airspace with the instructions to contact Daytona Approach on 125.35.

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Example : Departing Class C from the primary airport

Lets now depart Dayton Beach and fly back to Deland. Prior to taxi listen to the ATIS(Automatic Terminal Information Service) and then contact ground control with your aircraft, direction of flight, requested altitude, and ATIS code.

An example of the communication between you and the controller:

"Daytona ground Cessna 123NU, at the FBO, information Whiskey, departing southwest, request two thousand."

Controller: "Cessna 123NU squawk 2343, maintain 2000 on departure"

You: "Cessna 123NU, two thousand, squawk 2343".

Controller: "Cessna 123NU read back correct contact ground on 121.9 for taxi"

You: "121.9 for Taxi, 123NU."

After tuning the radio to 121.9: "Daytona ground Cessna 123NU at the FBO ready to taxi."

The controller issues you taxi instructions and you taxi, do your run up, then contact tower. "Daytona tower Cessna 123NU ready for departure runway four."

Controller : "Cessna 123NU cleared for take off, fly runway heading."

After you are airborne the controller issues the clearance "Cessna 123NU contact departure on 123.9"

You: "Departure on 123.9 Cessna 123NU".

You switch to 123.9 and say: "Daytona departure Cessna 123NU climbing one thousand for two thousand".

Controller: "Cessna 123NU radar contact turn left heading 270"

You : "Cessna 123NU left two seven zero".

You clear the class C airspace on the way to Deland and the controller says "Cessna 123NU clear of class Charlie airspace, squawk VFR, frequency change approved"

You respond : "Cessna 123NU Roger. Have a good day". You change the transponder code to 1200 and switch the frequency to land at Deland.

Example : Entering Class C underlying Class B Airspace

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This is a case where you must be vigilant and know the boundaries of the overlying class B airspace and the boundaries of the class C airspace you are entering. Planning a flight from Deland south to Orlando Sanford International Airport we choose to fly at 2000 because this altitude keeps us below the floor of the Class B airspace and you will only need to establish two way radio communications with Orlando before entering. If you decided to fly at 3000 you will be in class B airspace and must obtain a clearance before entering.

Example : Departing Class C underlying or adjacent to Class B airspace.

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In my experience most pilots get into trouble when departing class C airspace underlying or adjacent to Class B. If we fly from Sarasota to Albert Whited in St Petersburg, FL and depart to the north at 1500 we need to descend to below 1200 before reaching the class B airspace or we will need to get a clearance to enter class B.

One mistake pilots make is assuming when given a clearance from the controller of the adjoining class C airspace they are legal to enter class B. You are only allowed to enter class B airspace if you hear the controller state "cleared into class bravo airspace".

Conclusion

Class C airspace is normally designated around airports with a large number of instrument approaches and passenger enplanements but not big enough to designate it as class B airspace. There are great airports to visit within class C airspace and operating within the airspace is relatively easy if you know the rules. I hope you use this as a reference next time you are planning a flight into or around class C airspace.

Have a fun and safe flight,

Reference:

AIM 3-2-4

Class C Airspace Standards

Question from a reader:

While Reviewing the CLAMP SIX arrival into Sarasota, FL I see the note “DME Required”. Can I fly this arrival if I don’t have DME but have an IFR certified GPS?

Many pilots are now using an IFR certified GPS while flying enroute. We know our GPS can substitute for DME enroute but occasionally I will get questions concerning STARs (Standard Terminal Arrival Procedures).

The reason this question occasionally arises is due to a note on certain arrival charts stating DME is required. The same notation does not appear on the enroute charts and is not seen in many of our normal IFR flying. Of course substituting our GPS is subject to certain restrictions listed below.

Restrictions when Substituting GPS for ADF or DME

The equipment must be installed in accordance with appropriate airworthiness installation requirements and operated within the provisions of the applicable POH/AFM, or supplement.

The required integrity for these operations must be provided by at least en route RAIM, or equivalent.

WPs, fixes, intersections, and facility locations to be used for these operations must be retrieved from the GPS airborne database. The database must be current. If the required positions cannot be retrieved from the airborne database, the substitution of GPS for ADF and/or DME is not authorized

Procedures must be established for use when RAIM outages are predicted or occur. This may require the flight to rely on other approved equipment or require the aircraft to be equipped with operational NDB and/or DME receivers. Otherwise, the flight must be rerouted, delayed, canceled, or conducted under VFR.

The CDI must be set to terminal sensitivity (1 NM) when tracking GPS course guidance in the terminal area.

A non-GPS approach procedure must exist at the alternate airport when one is required. If the non-GPS approaches on which the pilot must rely require DME or ADF, the aircraft must be equipped with DME or ADF avionics as appropriate.

Charted requirements for ADF and/or DME can be met using the GPS system, except for use as the principal instrument approach navigation source.

Example 1:

Let’s review the CLAMP SIX Arrival to Sarasota-Bradenton airport in Florida. (KSRQ) In the bottom left corner of the plan view you will see “DME Required”. DME is required to identify BOATS and WALTR intersections.

If you are someone who normally flies RNAV arrivals this might make you pause and think for a moment because you don’t normally see this note. We can fly this arrival if we don’t have DME, have an IFR certified GPS, and comply with the restrictions above.

Example 2:

Review the DYLIN FOUR arrival for Newark Liberty Airport in New Jersey to determine if DME is required. On the chart there is no note stating DME is required but for the portions of the arrival above FL240 we need to remember we must have DME per 91.205.

If we have an IFR Certified GPS then we can fly this without DME because we can substitute GPS for the DME. If we don’t have a GPS we will be required to use DME for the portions of the arrival above FL240. If we are flying this arrival below FL240 we will not need GPS or DME.

Conclusion:

If you have been flying with an IFR certified GPS, especially a WAAS certified GPS, you may believe you will no longer be concerned with regulations regarding DME. This is not true since you will still need to understand the rules concerning the substitution of DME. I hope next time you are flying an arrival with the note “DME Required” you will be confident in knowing if you are required to have DME.

Recommended Reading:

Alternate Filing With A WAAS Certified GPS

Many do the majority of their flying to airports with Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) and can easily determine if they can make it to the destination and if an alternate is needed. A recent conversation with a pilot reminded me of the necessity for a review of the requirements for both weather reporting and when we should file an alternate.

As pilot in command for a flight under instrument flight rules we must become familiar with all available information concerning our flight which includes weather reports and forecasts (FAR 91.103 Preflight Action). While preparing for our flight all available information should include both commercial and government publications including TV weather forecasts.

Destination Weather

Larger airports normally have terminal aerodrome forecasts (TAF). The TAF is a report established to include a five statute mile radius around an airport. TAFs are issued by National Weather Service (NWS) Weather Forecast Offices (WFO) four times a day, every six hours beginning at 0000 UTC and are issued for a specified period, normally 24 hours.

If a TAF is unavailable for your destination you will need to use the aviation area forecast (FA). The FA gives a forecast over a large area encompassing several states and is what is used as forecast data at smaller airports that do not have terminal forecasts. Area forecasts are issued three times a day and are valid for 18 hours.

If there is no weather reporting at our destination airport and we want to determine if we need an alternate then we should first look towards the VFR clouds and weather section of the area forecast (FA). The forecast weather is for the next 12 hours with an outlook for an additional 6 hours.

Review the precautionary statements section to determine if your destination will be IFR and if you will need to file an alternate. All statements in area forecasts regarding heights are given in MSL or will be stated as above ground level (AGL) or ceiling (CIG).

AIRMET Sierra within the precautionary statements should be referenced for IFR conditions and mountain obscuration. Again all heights are in MSL unless otherwise noted as AGL or CIG.

Alternate Weather

To determine the need for an alternate airport we need to look at our destination and apply a simple rule per 91.169 most pilots call the 1-2-3 rule. For at least 1 hour before and for 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival at the destination, the ceiling must be at least 2,000 and the visibility at least 3 statute miles or you will need to file an alternate.

So how do we determine our alternate weather and if the alternate is appropriate for filing as an alternate. CFR Part 91.169 describes the minimum weather requirements at our estimated time of arrival at the alternate and the eligibility of an airport to be including as an alternate on your flight plan.

For an alternate airport with a precision approach the minimum ceiling must be 600 feet and visibility 2 statute miles. For an alternate airport with a non-precision approach a minimum ceiling of 800 feet and visibility 2 statute miles is required. If you want to file a flight plan with an alternate that does not have an instrument approach procedure; the ceiling and visibility must allow for a descent from the minimum enroute altitude (MEA), fly the approach, and land under basic VFR.

To determine if the alternate airport has other than standard alternate minimums look at the notes section of the approach plate. A dark triangle with a capital A in the center indicates standard alternate minimums are not applicable to this airport. You must now look at the alternate minimums page to determine the published alternate minimums.

If your chosen alternate does not have an instrument approach procedure or alternate minimums are not authorized you have only one choice. You must be able to descend from the minimum en route altitude (MEA), fly the approach, and land in VFR conditions.

The symbol NA next to the bold A designates that alternate minimums are not authorized due to unmonitored facility or absence of a weather reporting facility. Many times this can lead to pilots interpreting that we can never use the airport as an alternate. Again, as long as we can descend in VFR conditions from the MEA to the airport we can file this airport as an alternate in our IFR flight plan.

Example 1:

We are planning a flight from Ft Lauderdale to Tampa International and we need an alternate because Tampa is forecasting a ceiling of 1000 feet. We decide to use Lakeland, FL as our alternate with an estimated arrival time in Lakeland of 1300 local.

Note: Lakeland has non standard alternate minimums and no source of weather information is available when the tower is closed. The tower at Lakeland is open from 0600 to 2200.

Example 2:

We are planning a flight from Ft Lauderdale to Tampa International and we need an alternate because Tampa is forecasting a ceiling of 1000 feet. We decide to use Lakeland, FL as our alternate with an estimated arrival time in Lakeland but at 2300 local. Since we are arriving after the tower is closed we will need to be able to descend VFR from the MEA to the airport and land in VFR conditions to file Lakeland as our alternate.

Example 3:

We are planning an IFR flight from Tampa international to Lakeland, FL (KLAL) and the ceiling is forecast to be 1000 feet at our time of arrival. We decide to use Wauchula, FL (KCHN) because the weather south of Lakeland is sky clear and unrestricted visibility and Wauchula is far south of Lakeland.

If you look at an approach plate for Wauchula we notice the Bold A in a triangle and the NA next to it. This means that Standard Alternate minimums are not authorized and we will need to be able to descend from the MEA to the airport and land in VFR conditions. Since the weather is clear we can use KCHN as an alternate.

Notes on approach plate for Wauchula:

Conclusion:

When determining the weather when planing an IFR flight we must use all available information. Remember safety is our first priority and even though we can legally fly to a destination and are not required to file an alternate the most prudent choice many times is file an alternate even if not required by regulations.

If the weather at our destination is forecast to have a ceiling of 2000 feet and 3 miles visibility we don’t legally need an alternate but prudence tells us we should file one. Furthermore, when choosing an alternate we should look towards those airports with the best approach facilities and ability to leave after the weather gets better.

In example 3 above I would prefer Sarasota KSRQ as the alternate even though Wauchula is a legal alternate in this case. Sarasota has an ILS and weather reporting. If you have ever been in rural Florida around midnight you know not many 24 hour diners are open and most FBOs close early.

RNAV (GPS) Approach plates have four lines of approach minimums. LPV, LNAV/VNAV, LNAV, and Circling. The LPV (localizer performance with vertical guidance) minimums are for WAAS (wide area augmentation system) approaches and use electronic lateral and vertical guidance.

To fly an approach to LPV minimums a WAAS certified GPS is required to take advantage of the vertical alarm limits of between 12 and 50 meters (40 to 165 feet). To fly these approaches you must have a statement in the Aircraft Flight Manual that the installed equipment supports LPV approaches.

Many GPS and FMS (flight management system) avionics systems do not have WAAS but have advisory VNAV capability. The Baro-VNAV temperature limitation is a limitation imposed on these type of systems.

The vertical path described by VNAV systems are advisory only and are not considered primary for vertical guidance. Therefore, the pilot must comply with any published altitude including step down fix altitudes and must use the primary barometric altimeter.

For operators authorized to use Baro-VNAV avionics which provide an advisory VNAV path, a VNAV DA (decision altitude) is published. The missed approach must be executed upon reaching the published decision altitude.

Interestingly, the visibility for the VNAV decision altitude is normally greater than the visibility of the MDA because the VNAV path will bring the aircraft to a point further from the runway than if flying level at the MDA. Furthermore, the VNAV DA can not be used during extreme cold temperatures because of limitations of pressure sensing altimeters and is the reason a Baro-VNAV temperature limit is published for the LNAV/VNAV DA.

Why use LNAV DA even though the visibility is more restrictive?

First, LNAV/VNAV approaches will bring you to an altitude 100 feet below most minimum descent altitudes. In instances where the visibility is high but the ceiling is low the LNAV/VNAV DA might be your only option.

Most new avionics for both private single engine aircraft and airliners include vertical guidance. These avionics systems also provide information to the autopilot thus enabling hands off flying all the way to decision altitude or the minimum descent altitude. Therefore, we can descent using the autopilot and when we turn it off we can maintain the same pitch and power settings all the way to the transition to landing and make a more stabilized approach.

Most air carriers require some type of vertical guidance be followed during an approach even in visual conditions. Either the ILS, GPS, or a multi-sensing FMS (Flight Management System) is used to provide guidance to the runway of intended landing. Using all available navigational resources provides for a more stabilized approach, obstacle clearance, and further guarantees that we land on the runway we intend to land on.

Examples:

So how do we determine which minimums we should use when a Baro-VNAV temperature limit is published? Let’s look at a few examples using the RNAV (GPS) to runway 23 at Tampa Executive Airport (KVDF).

For all scenarios we will assume the ILS 23 is unavailable and the winds are favoring runway 23.

Scenario 1:

The latest weather is ceiling 300 feet and 3/4 mile visibility.

Due to the 300 foot ceiling we should use the LPV minimum of 318 feet MSL and fly using our WAAS certified GPS. If you do not have WAAS the best option would be to proceed to another airport where an ILS or better weather is available.

Scenario 2:

The latest weather is 500 feet and 2 miles visibility, temperature 20 degrees Celsius, WAAS is unavailable, and we have Baro-VNAV avionics with all proper authorizations.

Due to the 500 foot ceiling we should use the LNAV/VNAV DA minimums of 507 feet and follow the VNAV advisory glide path.

Scenario 3:

The latest weather is 600 feet and 2 miles visibility, temperature - 30 degrees Celsius, WAAS is unavailable, and we have Baro-VNAV avionics and all proper authorizations.

In this case we cannot use the LNAV/VNAV DA because of the note Baro-VNAV NA below -15 C (5 F). We should use the LNAV MDA of 540 feet MSL.

Scenario 4:

The latest weather is 600 feet and 3/4 miles visibility, temperature 20 degrees Celsius, WAAS is unavailable, and we have Baro-VNAV avionics and all proper authorizations.

Due to the 3/4 mile visibility we will should use the LNAV MDA of 540 MSL.

Note:

In all the scenarios above we should use the vertical guidance provided by our avionics. Remember even though we are unable to use the VNAV or LPV minimums we should still use all vertical guidance available to us, thus providing for a more stabilized approach.

Conclusion:

Baro-VNAV temperature limits are for those using LNAV/VNAV DA minimums. If using a WAAS GPS and LPV minimums you will not need to concern yourself with the Baro-VNAV temperature limits although you should still be vigilant as to your altitude while descending in cold temperatures. Remember “hot to cold look out below”.

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