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Sometimes the most difficult decisions we make are on the ground especially when taxiing on an airport with many intersecting runways. One airport I notice I must pay more attention to while taxiing is Louisville Airport (KSDF).

One day while leaving we were given instructions to taxi to Runway 35R via Delta cross Runway 29. We crossed 29 and began approaching the end of 35. As we approached the runway we noticed bright flashing yellow lights in the pavement and two alternating yellow lights on either side of the runway.

Getting closer we noticed a taxiway marking with two solid yellow lines and two dashed yellow lines furthest from us. Next to the taxiway is a sign with a red background and white lettering that says 35R-APPCH. I turned to my coworker and said I'm going to hold short. I said this as conformation with him and after we stopped I explained to him that even thought we briefed the taxi, in my mind I was expecting to see an ILS critical area sign which we see often.

I saw the approach hold line on the diagram before I began my taxi to the runway but in my mind I pictured an ILS critical area and was in the mode of continuing my taxi to the end as I normally would unless given instructions to hold short of the critical area. Since the yellow Wig-Wag lights were illuminated and the yellow pavement mounted lights were flashing, it brought to our attention the holding line so we held short. What would you have done?

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Approaching Houston we were issued the clearance "turn right heading 320 maintain seven thousand expect TRANN". Without further instructions what do we do next if we lose communications?

If you lose communications you must comply with FAR 91.185 which states if we lose communications and we cannot continue in visual conditions we must fly to the fix we were told to expect in the clearance. While being radar vectored the controller should tell you what to expect next in case you lose communications. In our case the controller issued instructions to expect TRANN intersection. Therefore, we should fly direct to TRANN if we lose communications.

But what if we are given the clearance "descend to seven thousand turn right direct TRANN expect holding"? Afterwards the the Air Traffic Controller gets busy giving instructions to other airplanes. Now what do we do?
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Reclining on the wooden bench on this humid morning, I watched the cool mist slowly dissipate. The only noise was the dew dripping from the hangar. The thin fog covering the grass seemed like a silk bed sheet covering the sleeping grass below. I took a deep relaxing breath noticing the smell of fresh cut grass. The only movement was from small birds and an occasional dear grazing, lulling me into a catatonic state.

My peaceful respite was suddenly interrupted by a grinding noise followed by an explosive burst from the small airplane. The engine rattling to life caused a rush of excitement and adrenaline through my body. I sat upright in anticipation of watching a small plane take to the air.

It was my senior year of college and I should have been studying for my finals but I couldn't help but come out to the airport and view the magical and mysterious event of an airplane leaving the ground and flying through the air.

A short burst of noise emanated from the small engine and the propeller began moving very fast. The plane shook for a moment and suddenly jerked forward. The engine noise then became silent and the airplane rolled, moving gracefully as it made its way toward the runway.
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Did you know bird strikes cause over $650 million dollars of damage to aircraft in the United States?

Do you know what is the biggest killer of migratory birds?

Have you ever had a bird strike your aircraft and wonder if there was anything you could have done to prevent the unwelcome encounter?

Ever wonder what you can do to prevent damage to your aircraft if a bird strike is immanent?

For answers to these and other questions I invite you to view the FAA Safety Seminar in person or online.

During the seminar you will:

Learn the common myths concerning bird strikes.
Learn what to do if you are about to be involved in a bird strike.
Discover some unique, humane, and environmentally friendly methods of bird mitigation.

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Level at fifteen thousand feet Air Traffic Control (ATC) issued a clearance to descend via the PHLBO TWO arrival into Newark, NJ (EWR). We were 30 miles southwest of DQO which has a crossing restriction at or above twenty thousand feet. We are already at fifteen thousand, which is below the crossing restriction of twenty thousand, so when can we begin our descent?
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The regulations state that flight into known or forecast light or moderate icing is prohibited unless we have an anti-ice or deice system. What does the FAA consider the word "known" to mean in reference to icing conditions?

The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) defines known icing conditions as "atmospheric conditions which the formation of ice is observed or detected in flight". If there is a pilot report of icing in an area you are flying through, you are flying into an area of known icing. If you don't have anti-ice or deice equipment you should not fly into this area.

It is easy to determine "known" but how do we determine what is forecast icing?

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Pilots are hesitant to declare an emergency and even more hesitant to tell Air Traffic Control (ATC) if they have a possible problem. The reasons are many fold but the justification I hear often is they don’t want to deal with the paperwork. This is not a good excuse, especially when not advising ATC of your fuel situation could lead to a fuel emergency.

If you have any problem or are experiencing a condition that would jeopardize the safety of the flight you should immediately let ATC know so they can begin assisting you. If your engine quits you would let ATC know right away, so why not do the same when your fuel begins getting low.

A minimum fuel situation allows the pilot to continue for a long time before the engine quits and is one of the reasons some pilots tend not to take immediate action by notifying ATC or proceeding to an alternate airport. The wonderful aspect when declaring minimum fuel is that it is an advisory to ATC and requires no paper work.

What is Minimum Fuel?

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LaGuardia Airport in New York City is one of the more challenging airports due to limited airport surface for taxiing and many obstacles in the departure path. I recently had a conversation with a First Officer at a regional airline who said LaGuardia is rewarding to fly into but you must be vigilant.

During our conversation he related that some Captains he flies with are not aware of the climb gradients or how to calculate the rate of climb. In defense of Captains, maybe because I am one, charts are normally provided describing the maximum weights for the runway and weather conditions. But since he brought it up let’s review departure procedures and climb gradients.

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Pilots of all experience levels seem to have some misconceptions concerning class C airspace. This was made apparent during two recent flights. One while planning a flight with a student through the class C airspace over Sanford, Florida. The second with an airline captain who had forgotten the speed restrictions within class C airspace causing us to slow much earlier than was necessary.

Let's review class C airspace and some of the nuances while operating within class C. You might be surprised by some of the symbols and operating rules even if you normally fly within class C airspace.

Class C Airspace Chart Symbols :

The following depicts the top of the inner circle from 4000 feet MSL(mean sea level) to the surface :

The Following depicts the outer circle from 4000 MSL to 1200 MSL :

The following depicts the class C airspace up to but not including the overlying class B airspace :

The magenta thick line box depicts the radio frequencies to use and who to contact :

Boundaries:

Inner circle from the surface with a 5 nautical mile ring up to 4000 above the primary airport.

Outer circle from 5 to 10 nautical miles from the primary airport and from 1200 AGL to 4000 AGL of the primary airport.

Outer area from 10 to 20 nautical miles from the primary airport but not depicted on the chart because communication with air traffic control is not mandatory but highly recommended.

Equipment Required:

Transponder with with altitude capability while within the lateral boundaries of Class C airspace

Two way radio.

Operating Rules:

Establish two-way radio contact.

You must establish two way radio communications prior to entering class C airspace. To establish two-way radio communications with air traffic control you should first give your position, altitude, and your request. Your request should include whether you are landing or transitioning their airspace.

If the controller has answered you with your call sign or registration number you have established two way radio contact. Now you are cleared to enter the class C airspace unless otherwise instructed.

Example: Two-way radio communications not established.

You call "Daytona approach Cessna 123NU twenty miles southwest, two thousand, landing Daytona Beach information Juliet. The controller responds "aircraft calling southwest standby." You have not established two-way radio contact and may not enter controlled airspace.

Example: Two-way radio communications establish.

If in the previous example the controller responded with "Cessna 123NU squawk 4525" you have established communications and are clear to enter their airspace. If the controllers response was "Cessna 123NU Roger" you may also enter the class C airspace.

Example: Communications established but not cleared into class C airspace.

If in the above example the controller response "123NU" squawk 4525, remain clear of class C airspace" you may not enter the airspace until you receive further clearance. Remember if the controller responds with your call sign or registration number you are cleared into class C airspace unless instructed otherwise.

Airspeed :

Airspeed maximum of 200 knots indicated within 4 nautical or 5 statute miles and 2500 feet above the ground of the primary airport.

Pilot Certification Required :

No Specific Pilot Certification is required but you will need to an additional endorsement if operating in Class C airspace with a sport pilot certificate.

Operating within class C Airspace:

Entering class C airspace begins in the same manner as every flight by becoming familiar with all available information. Before we enter Class C we should review the frequencies, airspace dimensions, weather, and our aircraft to determine if we are legal to enter the airspace.

Example: Entering Class C Airspace

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Lets fly a short flight from Deland to Daytona Beach, Florida. During our preflight we determine our aircraft has an operating transponder and a two-way radio.

While reviewing the airspace on our chart, the outer circle indicates class C airspace from 4000 MSL(Mean sea Level) to 1200 feet MSL. Since this will be a short flight we will remain at 1000 feet and stay under the outer circle. Prior to entering class C we must establish two-way radio communication, but what frequency do we use?

While reviewing the airspace on the sectional chart we see the magenta box located south of the airspace with a frequency of 125.35. Confirming the proper frequency, review the Communications section for Daytona Beach in the Airport Facility .

Since Deland is close to Orlando we should also review the terminal area chart for Orlando. There are three boxes with frequencies in them and at first glance it might seem confusing. But upon closer inspection we notice one of the magenta boxes has an arrow pointing toward the Daytona Beach airspace with the instructions to contact Daytona Approach on 125.35.

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Example : Departing Class C from the primary airport

Lets now depart Dayton Beach and fly back to Deland. Prior to taxi listen to the ATIS(Automatic Terminal Information Service) and then contact ground control with your aircraft, direction of flight, requested altitude, and ATIS code.

An example of the communication between you and the controller:

"Daytona ground Cessna 123NU, at the FBO, information Whiskey, departing southwest, request two thousand."

Controller: "Cessna 123NU squawk 2343, maintain 2000 on departure"

You: "Cessna 123NU, two thousand, squawk 2343".

Controller: "Cessna 123NU read back correct contact ground on 121.9 for taxi"

You: "121.9 for Taxi, 123NU."

After tuning the radio to 121.9: "Daytona ground Cessna 123NU at the FBO ready to taxi."

The controller issues you taxi instructions and you taxi, do your run up, then contact tower. "Daytona tower Cessna 123NU ready for departure runway four."

Controller : "Cessna 123NU cleared for take off, fly runway heading."

After you are airborne the controller issues the clearance "Cessna 123NU contact departure on 123.9"

You: "Departure on 123.9 Cessna 123NU".

You switch to 123.9 and say: "Daytona departure Cessna 123NU climbing one thousand for two thousand".

Controller: "Cessna 123NU radar contact turn left heading 270"

You : "Cessna 123NU left two seven zero".

You clear the class C airspace on the way to Deland and the controller says "Cessna 123NU clear of class Charlie airspace, squawk VFR, frequency change approved"

You respond : "Cessna 123NU Roger. Have a good day". You change the transponder code to 1200 and switch the frequency to land at Deland.

Example : Entering Class C underlying Class B Airspace

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This is a case where you must be vigilant and know the boundaries of the overlying class B airspace and the boundaries of the class C airspace you are entering. Planning a flight from Deland south to Orlando Sanford International Airport we choose to fly at 2000 because this altitude keeps us below the floor of the Class B airspace and you will only need to establish two way radio communications with Orlando before entering. If you decided to fly at 3000 you will be in class B airspace and must obtain a clearance before entering.

Example : Departing Class C underlying or adjacent to Class B airspace.

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In my experience most pilots get into trouble when departing class C airspace underlying or adjacent to Class B. If we fly from Sarasota to Albert Whited in St Petersburg, FL and depart to the north at 1500 we need to descend to below 1200 before reaching the class B airspace or we will need to get a clearance to enter class B.

One mistake pilots make is assuming when given a clearance from the controller of the adjoining class C airspace they are legal to enter class B. You are only allowed to enter class B airspace if you hear the controller state "cleared into class bravo airspace".

Conclusion

Class C airspace is normally designated around airports with a large number of instrument approaches and passenger enplanements but not big enough to designate it as class B airspace. There are great airports to visit within class C airspace and operating within the airspace is relatively easy if you know the rules. I hope you use this as a reference next time you are planning a flight into or around class C airspace.

Have a fun and safe flight,

Reference:

AIM 3-2-4

Class C Airspace Standards